Radiation-Absorbed Dose from 201Tl-Thallous Chloride

Stephen R. Thomas; Michael G. Stabin; Frank P. Castronovo

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TABLE 1

Biologic Parameters of Fractional Distribution Function, α_h(t) (α_h(t) = α_h1exp(−λ_h1t) + α_h2exp(−λ_h2t)), for Intravenous Administration of ²⁰¹Tl as Thallous Chloride

Source organ*	α_h1^†	λ_h1 (h⁻¹)^‡	α_h2^†	λ_h2 (h⁻¹)^‡	τ_h (h)^§
Brain	0.0176	0			1.85
Lower large intestine	0.036	0.00363			2.74
Small intestine	0.144	0.00363			10.96
Stomach	0.028	0.00338			2.17
Upper large intestine	0.047	0.00363			3.58
Heart wall	0.034	0.00387			2.54
Kidneys	0.045	0.00267	0.0097	0.0257	3.97
Liver	0.046	0.00318			3.63
Spleen	0.0074	0.00108	0.0028	0.0187	0.798
Testes^‖	0.00568	0.00445	−0.00614	0.298	0.255
Thyroid	0.0029	0.00198	0.0024	0.00417	0.428
Urinary bladder^¶	0.062	0.00475	0.138	0.00138	0.0913
Remainder					52.2

↵* For organs other than testes, data used were from Table 1 in Krahwinkel et al. (17), which gives mean and SD of kinetic data for their 15 patients. Following the revision of Castronovo (18), these pooled data were reanalyzed in this report.
↵^† α_hj values are fractional distribution functions for source organ, h.
↵^‡ λ_hj values are biologic rate constants for source organ, h.
↵^§ Residence time τ_h (h) includes physical decay and, with exception of urinary bladder (see ¶ below), is calculated using the relationship: τ_h = Σ α_hj/(λ + λ_hj), where λ is physical decay constant given in reciprocal hours (for ²⁰¹Tl, λ = 0.009482 h⁻¹).
↵^‖ For testes, the results were derived from quantitative scintigraphy of 28 patients (56 studies) (25). Values shown for testes parameters are averages of individual results obtained for each patient. As testes residence time shown is average of individual patient τ values, it differs from value that would be derived from average α and λ values given in table. Residence time for testes: range = 0.095–0.46 h; SD = 0.087 h.
↵^¶ For urinary bladder, residence time was determined using model of Cloutier et al. (33) with a 4.8-h voiding interval.

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TABLE 2

Human Testes (Adult) Uptake and Dosimetry of ²⁰¹Tl-Thallous Chloride: Comparison of Results from Various Investigators

Reference	No. of subjects	Exercise vs. rest	Testicular uptake (% at 24 h)	Testicular biologic t_1/2	Data acquisition method	Estimated radiation dose to testes
Reference	No. of subjects	Exercise vs. rest	Testicular uptake (% at 24 h)	Testicular biologic t_1/2	Data acquisition method			rad/mCi	mGy/MBq
Rao et al. (23)	4	Rest	0.43 ± 0.10	280 h	Anterior imaging, shielded	1.3	0.35
Atkins et al. (14)	3		∼0.15	Long	Imaging, geometric mean	0.59	0.16
Hosain and Hosain (22)			0.8		Extrapolation from animals	1.4	0.4
Gupta et al. (21)	4		∼1.1		Imaging
Krahwinkel et al. (17)	14	Exercise	0.30 ± 0.10	Long	Imaging, geometric mean	0.34 ± 0.21	0.09 ± 0.06
Castronovo (18)	14	Exercise	0.30 ± 0.10	Long	Imaging, geometric mean	0.91	0.25
Nettleton et al. (24)	4		0.19		Orchidectomy	0.41–0.52	0.11–0.14
This study and Stabin et al. (25)	28*	Exercise	0.29 ± 0.09	429 h^†	Anterior imaging, shielded	0.77	0.21
ICRP 80 (20)						1.7	0.45

↵* Fifty-six studies done in 28 patients.
↵^† Obtained from average of biologic half-time (biologic t_1/2) for long biologic component for all patients. Range = 34–5,139 h; SD = 810 h.

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TABLE 3

Estimated Absorbed Dose at Time of Calibration from ²⁰¹Tl as Thallous Chloride Plus Contaminants After Intravenous Administration (Assumed Percentages of ²⁰¹Tl, ²⁰⁰Tl, ²⁰²Tl, and ²⁰³Pb: 0.983, 0.003, 0.012, 0.002) and Percent Contribution of Each Radionuclide to Absorbed Dose

Organ	Estimated radiation dose											% contribution
		rad/mCi									mGy/MBq,	% contribution
		²⁰¹Tl	²⁰⁰Tl	²⁰²Tl	²⁰³Pb	Total	Total	²⁰¹Tl	²⁰⁰Tl	²⁰²Tl	²⁰³Pb
Adrenals	2.10E−01	2.18E−03	2.14E−02	8.34E−04	2.34E−01	6.33E−02	89.58	0.93	9.14	0.36
Brain	1.91E−01	1.08E−03	1.77E−02	3.35E−04	2.10E−01	5.68E−02	90.88	0.51	8.45	0.16
Breasts	1.15E−01	9.42E−04	9.64E−03	2.35E−04	1.25E−01	3.39E−02	91.38	0.75	7.68	0.19
GB wall	2.75E−01	2.95E−03	2.80E−02	1.01E−03	3.07E−01	8.31E−02	89.60	0.96	9.11	0.33
LLI wall	1.04E+00	4.88E−03	4.53E−02	3.19E−04	1.09E+00	2.96E−01	95.39	0.45	4.13	0.03
Small intestine	1.34E+00	5.73E−03	5.32E−02	3.67E−04	1.40E+00	3.79E−01	95.77	0.41	3.80	0.03
Stomach wall	5.95E−01	3.69E−03	3.47E−02	3.59E−04	6.34E−01	1.71E−01	93.89	0.58	5.47	0.06
ULI wall	1.03E+00	6.35E−03	5.61E−02	4.08E−04	1.10E+00	2.97E−01	94.27	0.58	5.11	0.04
Heart wall	8.74E−01	3.82E−03	3.49E−02	4.31E−04	9.14E−01	2.47E−01	95.71	0.42	3.82	0.05
Kidneys	1.45E+00	6.37E−03	6.05E−02	1.68E−03	1.52E+00	4.10E−01	95.49	0.42	3.98	0.11
Liver	3.19E−01	2.51E−03	2.29E−02	3.02E−03	3.47E−01	9.39E−02	91.80	0.72	6.61	0.87
Lungs	1.59E−01	1.33E−03	1.40E−02	4.64E−04	1.75E−01	4.73E−02	90.98	0.76	8.00	0.27
Muscle	1.53E−01	1.42E−03	1.44E−02	3.71E−04	1.70E−01	4.59E−02	90.46	0.83	8.49	0.22
Ovaries	3.38E−01	3.72E−03	3.40E−02	3.43E−04	3.76E−01	1.02E−01	89.90	0.99	9.02	0.09
Pancreas	2.49E−01	2.61E−03	2.57E−02	6.62E−04	2.78E−01	7.53E−02	89.59	0.94	9.23	0.24
Red marrow	1.44E−01	1.68E−03	1.68E−02	1.31E−03	1.64E−01	4.44E−02	87.93	1.02	10.25	0.80
Bone surface	3.18E−01	1.65E−03	2.06E−02	6.78E−03	3.47E−01	9.37E−02	91.62	0.48	5.95	1.96
Skin	1.07E−01	8.42E−04	8.79E−03	2.45E−04	1.17E−01	3.16E−02	91.55	0.72	7.52	0.21
Spleen	5.74E−01	3.39E−03	3.61E−02	3.18E−04	6.14E−01	1.66E−01	93.51	0.55	5.88	0.05
Testes	7.38E−01	2.59E−03	3.15E−02	2.20E−04	7.73E−01	2.09E−01	95.56	0.34	4.08	0.03
Thymus	1.54E−01	1.37E−03	1.42E−02	2.96E−04	1.70E−01	4.60E−02	90.69	0.81	8.33	0.17
Thyroid	1.94E+00	5.31E−03	5.75E−02	2.84E−04	2.00E+00	5.42E−01	96.85	0.27	2.87	0.01
UB wall	2.09E−01	1.94E−03	1.98E−02	2.56E−04	2.31E−01	6.25E−02	90.50	0.84	8.55	0.11
Uterus	2.87E−01	3.03E−03	2.87E−02	3.05E−04	3.19E−01	8.64E−02	89.98	0.95	8.98	0.10
Total body	1.96E−01	1.54E−03	1.59E−02	6.11E−04	2.14E−01	5.77E−02	91.56	0.72	7.43	0.29

Effective dose											% contribution
rem/mCi									mSv/MBq,		% contribution
5.42E−01	2.64E−03	2.70E−02	6.26E−04	5.73E−01	1.55E−01	94.70	0.46	4.72	0.11

GB = gallbladder; LLI = lower large intestine; ULI = upper large intestine; UB = urinary bladder.
Effective dose and percent contribution to effective dose for each radioisotope are provided at bottom of table.

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TABLE 4

Estimated Absorbed Dose from ²⁰¹Tl as Thallous Chloride Plus Contaminants After Intravenous Administration, Allowing for Shelf Life of 5 Days After Calibration (Assumed Percentages of ²⁰¹Tl, ²⁰²Tl, and ²⁰³Pb: 0.9707, 0.0280, 0.0013; Contribution of ²⁰⁰Tl Is Effectively Zero and Is Not Included) and Percent Contribution of Each Radioisotope to Absorbed Dose

Organ	Estimated radiation dose									% contribution
		rad/mCi							mGy/MBq,	% contribution
		²⁰¹Tl	²⁰²Tl	²⁰³Pb	Total	Total	²⁰¹Tl	²⁰²Tl	²⁰³Pb
Adrenals	2.07E−01	4.99E−02	5.42E−04	2.58E−01	6.96E−02	80.41	19.38	0.21
Brain	1.88E−01	4.14E−02	2.18E−04	2.30E−01	6.22E−02	81.91	17.99	0.09
Breasts	1.13E−01	2.25E−02	1.53E−04	1.36E−01	3.67E−02	83.34	16.55	0.11
GB wall	2.72E−01	6.53E−02	6.56E−04	3.38E−01	9.13E−02	80.47	19.33	0.19
LLI wall	1.03E+00	1.06E−01	2.08E−04	1.14E+00	3.07E−01	90.70	9.28	0.02
Small intestine	1.32E+00	1.24E−01	2.39E−04	1.45E+00	3.92E−01	91.41	8.57	0.02
Stomach wall	5.88E−01	8.09E−02	2.34E−04	6.69E−01	1.81E−01	87.87	12.09	0.03
ULI wall	1.02E+00	1.31E−01	2.65E−04	1.15E+00	3.12E−01	88.62	11.36	0.02
Heart wall	8.64E−01	8.15E−02	2.80E−04	9.45E−01	2.55E−01	91.35	8.62	0.03
Kidneys	1.43E+00	1.41E−01	1.09E−03	1.57E+00	4.25E−01	90.97	8.97	0.07
Liver	3.15E−01	5.35E−02	1.96E−03	3.70E−01	1.00E−01	85.01	14.46	0.53
Lungs	1.57E−01	3.27E−02	3.02E−04	1.90E−01	5.14E−02	82.67	17.17	0.16
Muscle	1.52E−01	3.36E−02	2.41E−04	1.85E−01	5.01E−02	81.74	18.13	0.13
Ovaries	3.34E−01	7.92E−02	2.23E−04	4.13E−01	1.12E−01	80.78	19.16	0.05
Pancreas	2.46E−01	6.00E−02	4.30E−04	3.07E−01	8.29E−02	80.30	19.56	0.14
Red marrow	1.43E−01	3.93E−02	8.49E−04	1.83E−01	4.94E−02	78.03	21.51	0.46
Bone surface	3.14E−01	4.82E−02	4.41E−03	3.66E−01	9.90E−02	85.65	13.15	1.20
Skin	1.06E−01	2.05E−02	1.59E−04	1.26E−01	3.41E−02	83.64	16.23	0.13
Spleen	5.67E−01	8.43E−02	2.07E−04	6.51E−01	1.76E−01	87.03	12.94	0.03
Testes	7.29E−01	7.35E−02	1.43E−04	8.03E−01	2.17E−01	90.82	9.16	0.02
Thymus	1.52E−01	3.31E−02	1.92E−04	1.86E−01	5.02E−02	82.08	17.82	0.10
Thyroid	1.92E+00	1.34E−01	1.85E−04	2.05E+00	5.54E−01	93.45	6.54	0.01
UB wall	2.07E−01	4.61E−02	1.66E−04	2.53E−01	6.84E−02	81.70	19.23	0.07
Uterus	2.84E−01	6.70E−02	1.98E−04	3.52E−01	9.49E−02	80.87	19.07	0.06
Total body	1.93E−01	3.70E−02	3.97E−04	2.31E−01	6.23E−02	83.76	16.07	0.17

Effective dose									% contribution
rem/mCi							mSv/MBq,		% contribution
5.36E−01	6.31E−02	4.07E−04	5.99E−01	1.62E−01	89.40	10.50	0.068

GB = gallbladder; LLI = lower large intestine; ULI = upper large intestine; UB = urinary bladder.
Effective dose and percent contribution to effective dose for each radioisotope are provided at bottom of table.

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TABLE 5
Radiation Dose to Testes as Function of Age Using Data From This Study in Comparison with Values Provided by ICRP Publication 80 (20)
Age Radiation dose to testes
This study ICRP 80 (20),
rad/mCi mGy/MBq mGy/MBq
Newborn 27.8 7.5
1 y 19.0 5.1 13
5 y 14.3 3.9 9.6
10 y 12.1 3.3 8.3
15 y 1.6 0.43 1.1
Adult 0.77 0.21 0.45

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TABLE 6

Comparison of Organ Dose Estimates Between This Study and Other Previous Publications

Organ	Estimated radiation dose (mGy/MBq)
Organ		This study*	Atkins et al. (14)	Castronovo (18)	Krahwinkel et al. (17)	ICRP 53^† (19)	ICRP 80 (20)
Adrenals	6.33E−02		4.97E−02	1.05E−02	5.1E−02	5.7E−02
Brain	5.68E−02		4.62E−02			2.2E−02
Breasts	3.39E−02		1.33E−02		2.8E−02	2.4E−02
GB wall	8.31E−02		6.57E−02			6.5E−02
LLI wall	2.96E−01	2.4E−01	1.19E−01	1.45E−01	3.6E−01	3.2E−01
Small intestine	3.79E−01		1.26E−01	1.64E−02	1.6E−01	1.6E−01
Stomach wall	1.71E−01		1.69E−01	4.62E−02	1.2E−01	1.4E−01
ULI wall	2.97E−01	2.4E−01	4.23E−01	7.02E−02	1.9E−01	3.2E−01
Heart wall	2.47E−01		3.01E−01	8.89E−03	2.3E−01	2.0E−01
Kidneys	4.10E−01	3.16E−01	5.68E−01	6.38E−02	5.4E−01	4.8E−01
Liver	9.39E−02		9.49E−02	1.45E−02	1.8E−01	1.5E−01
Lungs	4.73E−02		3.29E−02	9.20E−03	1.2E−01	1.1E−01
Muscle	4.59E−02		7.75E−02	9.24E−03		5.2E−02
Ovaries	1.02E−01		1.01E−01		1.2E−01	7.3E−01
Pancreas	7.53E−02		6.10E−02	1.33E−02	5.4E−02	5.7E−02
Red marrow	4.44E−02		3.34E−02	1.71E−02	1.8E−01	1.6E−01
Bone surface	9.37E−02		8.31E−02		3.4E−01	3.4E−01
Skin	3.16E−02			6.76E−03		2.2E−02
Spleen	1.66E−01		1.86E−01	2.68E−02	1.4E−01	1.2E−01
Testes	2.09E−01	1.59E−01	2.45E−01	9.08E−02	5.6E−01	4.5E−01
Thymus	4.60E−02		3.41E−02			3.6E−02
Thyroid	5.42E−01	2.78E−01	5.64E−01	9.22E−02	2.5E−01	2.2E−01
UB wall	6.25E−02		5.44E−02	1.20E−02	3.6E−02	4.0E−02
Uterus	8.64E−02		6.35E−02	1.35E−02	5.0E−02	5.1E−02
Total body	5.77E−02	5.67E−02	7.68E−02

↵* Total, from Table 3. Essentially identical dose estimates may be found in NUREG/CR-6345 (35) as they were based on nearly all of the same input data and equivalent model assumptions.
↵^† Includes ²⁰⁰Tl and ²⁰²Tl impurity contributions.
GB = gallbladder; LLI = lower large intestine; ULI = upper large intestine; UB = urinary bladder.

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Age	Radiation dose to testes
		This study			ICRP 80 (20),
		rad/mCi	mGy/MBq	mGy/MBq
Newborn	27.8	7.5
1 y	19.0	5.1	13
5 y	14.3	3.9	9.6
10 y	12.1	3.3	8.3
15 y	1.6	0.43	1.1
Adult	0.77	0.21	0.45

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