Ocean acidification may have severe consequences for marine ecosystems; however,
assessing its future impact is difficult because laboratory experiments and field observations are …

Ocean ecosystems have responded and will continue to respond to climate changes of different
rates, magnitudes, and durations (virtually certain). Human societies depend on marine …

Real-world experience underscores the complexity of interactions among multiple drivers of
climate change risk and of how multiple risks compound or cascade. However, a holistic …

The Pliocene period is the most recent time when the Earth was globally significantly (∼3C)
warmer than today. However, the existing pCO 2 data for the Pliocene are sparse and there …

Abstract Theory and climate modelling suggest that the sensitivity of Earth’s climate to changes
in radiative forcing could depend on the background climate. However, palaeoclimate …

Accurate records of the state of the ocean carbonate system are critical for understanding
past changes in pCO 2 , ocean acidification and climate. The chemical principles underlying …

Constraining the greenhouse gas forcing, climatic warming and estimates of climate sensitivity
across ancient large transient warming events is a major challenge to the palaeoclimate …

Increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in sea water are driving a progressive acidification
of the ocean 1 . Although the associated changes in the carbonate chemistry of surface …

Seaweed and seagrass communities in the northeast Atlantic have been profoundly impacted
by humans, and the rate of change is accelerating rapidly due to runaway CO 2 emissions …

The Working Group II contribution to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report assesses the impacts
of climate change, looking at ecosystems, biodiversity, and human communities at global …